Thermal mechanical analysis (TMA) is a highly precise and accurate technique used to characterize the physical changes of materials as a function of temperature and time under a controlled force. The technique involves the measurement of the initial length of the sample (l0), followed by the application of a controlled change in temperature and/or force. The resulting change in sample length (dl) is measured using an electrical transformer called a linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT).

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a widely used nondestructive method in materials science, geology, environmental science, and biology for determining the atomic and molecular arrangements in crystalline materials. The technique involves irradiating a crystal with incident X-rays and measuring the intensities and angles of the scattered X-rays. The intensity of the scattered Xrays is then plotted as a function of the scattering angle, and the structure of the material is determined from the analysis of the location, in angle, and the intensities of scattered intensity peaks.

Optical microscopy is often the starting point for successful materials related failure and root cause analysis. It helps clients fully understand microstructure and other materials properties. The goal of optical microscopy is to produce clear and high quality images with high magnification (up to 1000X). Upright microscopes are the most common type, where the objective lens is above the stage and lighting system can be from top (reflected, bright field), bottom (transmitted) or sides (reflected, dark field).

A Physical Properties Measurement System (PPMS) is a stateof-the-art laboratory instrument used to investigate the physical behavior of materials under different external conditions. PPMS is based on the principles of experimental physics and thermodynamics, which govern the behavior of matter under various physical conditions. The system typically consists of a cryogenic cooling system, a magnetometer, a temperature controller, a sample holder, and various sensors and instruments for measuring different physical properties.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) provides high-resolution and long-depth-of-field images of the sample surface and nearsurface using an energetic beam of electrons. As an e-beam rasters specimen surface, various signals that contain information about the surface topography and composition are produced as a result of the beam–material interaction. Sketch provides different signals produced as a result of this interaction.

The Gatan Precision Etching and Coating System II utilizes two (2) penning ion guns to etch and to coat an SEM sample in one evacuation. Ion etching the surface of a sample is done in cases when traditional grinding and polishing may not be sufficient or may adversely cause undesired reactions due to a specific sample’s chemistry. For metallography, ion etching is a viable and inert alternative to wet chemical etching, which is done to reveal grain microstructure.

Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) is an analytical technique used to study the chemical composition and molecular structure of the surfaces of materials at the nanoscale. It has become an essential tool in the fields of materials science, surface chemistry, and biomedicine, among others. In this technique, a primary ion beam is used to sputter secondary ions from the surface of the sample. These ions are then mass-analyzed based on their time of flight to a detector, providing information on their mass-to-charge ratio and abundance.

The microhardness tester makes an indent using a specialized indenter and holding for a set period. The user then measures the diagonals of the indents, and the tester automatically calculates the hardness. The testing parameters, such as the type of indenter, force and holding time, can be changed by users to match their requirements.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is a technique used to measure changes in sample weight as a function of temperature or time. This technique is valuable because even small changes in a sample's weight can provide a wealth of information about its chemical and physical properties. The sensitivity and quality of the balance used in TGA allows for precise measurements of even small changes in sample weight, enabling researchers to gain insight into various phenomena that affect the sample, such as vaporization, sublimation, absorption, adsorption, and desorption.

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is an analytical technique that provides information on the chemical composition, elemental distribution, and chemical bonding state of the surface of a material. It is based on the photoelectric effect, which is a fundamental principle in quantum mechanics that explains the interaction between photons and matter. When a photon of sufficient energy is absorbed by an atom in a material, an electron is ejected from that atom, resulting in the emission of a photoelectron.